Urology

Kidney stones form from crystallised minerals. They may cause pain, blood in urine or blockage; fever with suspected obstruction needs urgent assessment.

A ureteric stone is lodged in the tube carrying urine from kidney to bladder. It can cause severe flank pain spreading towards the groin and obstruct urine flow.

Urinary tract infections commonly cause burning urination and frequency. Fever and flank pain may suggest infection involving the kidneys rather than only the bladder.

BPH is non-cancerous prostate enlargement that can restrict urine flow. A weak stream, hesitancy and incomplete emptying are common symptoms.

Prostate cancer arises in the prostate and often has no early symptoms. PSA results and further investigations are interpreted together, not treated as a diagnosis on their own.

Bladder cancer develops in the bladder lining and can first appear as painless blood in urine. Unexplained haematuria needs investigation even if it occurs only once.

Kidney cancer is a malignant growth in kidney tissue, sometimes found incidentally on imaging. Size and spread help guide treatment planning.

Urinary incontinence is involuntary urine leakage. Leakage with coughing, sudden urgency or incomplete emptying can reflect different problems requiring different approaches.

Haematuria is blood in urine, visible or detected on testing. Infection, stones and tumours are possible causes, so unexplained bleeding should not be ignored.

Male infertility may involve sperm production, sperm function or obstruction in the reproductive tract. Evaluation considers semen findings, medical history and both partners' fertility factors.

Erectile dysfunction is persistent difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection. Vascular disease, diabetes, medicines, hormones and psychological factors may contribute.

A hydrocele is fluid around a testicle; a varicocele is enlargement of scrotal veins. They can cause swelling or discomfort, and some varicoceles affect fertility.

A urethral stricture is scarring that narrows the tube carrying urine out of the body. It may cause weak flow, straining, infections or retention.

Congenital and childhood urological disorders involve urinary or genital development. Some affect urine drainage or infection risk and require age-specific review.

Urinary obstruction blocks normal urine drainage. The effect depends on its site and duration; inability to pass urine requires urgent assessment.